Latin American independence and its limits
- The Napoleonic crisis opened space for Spanish American self-government
- Mexican popular insurgency connected independence with social reform
- The Plan de Iguala joined rival forces around Mexican independence
- Bolívar and San Martín pursued linked regional liberation campaigns
- Haitian support linked Spanish American liberation to emancipation
- Brazil’s independence preserved a monarchy rooted in the Portuguese dynasty
- Political independence did not automatically dismantle colonial social hierarchies